Polystylism in 20th Century Music

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Author : Elena Sorban

Definitions

A. CULTIVATED MUSIC OF THE 20'TH 'CENTURY, a period with a blend of ideologies (existentialism, individualism, atheism, neo-Christianity, ideological indifferentism etc.) characterized by POLYSTYLISM, both successively and on simultaneous segments or even within the same piece.

Possible systematization:

~1870>~1920: transition of music from Romanticism to the polystylism of the 20th century

~1910>~1970:

A1. MODERNISM, with stylistic trends

A1.1. EXPRESSIONIST

A1.2. AVANT-GARDE - TECHNICIST

A2.Stylistic-musical trends which creatively combine modernism with traditional elements:

A2.1. NEOCLASSICISM;

A2.2. NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF THE 20TH CENTURY.

A3. RETRO STYLISTIC TRENDS: CLASSIC AND POSTROMANTIC, converging into postmodernism.

~1970> contemporary period

POSTMODERNISM or POSTMODERN POLYSTYLISM.

IDEOLOGIES, MENTALITIES, ATTITUDES

Globalization implies economical-social-political processes with more and more obvious results, having ideological-cultural consequences of multiculturalism, deculturalization, aculturalization. The philosophy of the Romantic thinkers Kierkegaard and Nietzsche is adopted and continued by the mentality of the first half of the 20th century.

  • Philosophical existentialism (Albert CAMUS; Jean-Paul SARTRE).
  • Individualistic ideology (liberal, libertine, existential, anarchic; moral egoism).
  • Atheism.
  • Fascism.
  • Communist ideology of Marxist origin.
  • Neo-Christianity (neo-protestant denominations and liberal trends in the historical religions)
  • Ecumenism
  • Ecological movement.
  • Liberalism and fundamentalism.
  • Ideological indifference.

The term polystylism refers to the multitude of style in quick succession and simultaneous during this period.

ARTISTIC TRENDS

Beside the trends in literature, painting and music, there are stylistic trends determined by the specific sonority (eg. Bruitism), and also trends less specific to music, such as abstract art, cubism, Dadaism, surrealism, art déco.

ABSTRACT ART OR NON-FIGURATIVE ART - expressed exclusively through the expressivity of shapes and colours (the Russian painter Vassili KANDINSKY (1866-1944).

CUBISM – initiated in paintings by Georges BRAQUE and Pablo PICASSO; consists of a modernist-symbolic representation, with angular geometrical elements.

DADAISM - initiated in Zurich during WWI by the poet Tristan TZARA, manifested in poetry, painting, and cabaret. Other representatives are the painter and architect Marcel Iancu, the poet Guillaume Appollinaire, the poet Ion Vinea. Dadaist poetry seeks the sonorous musicality.

ART DÉCO '- ' a trend in the plastic arts, initiated in France, as a reaction to academism and Art Nouveau, manifested in the period 1925-1940, characterized by the predominance of geometric elements.

SUPRAREALISM – initiated in the 1920s in Paris, theorized in the manifest of the poet André Breton (1924), manifested in literature and painting – Pablo PICASSO, Max ERNST, René MAGRITTE, Salvador DALI – and film; the music of SATIE, VARÈSE, G. TAILLEFERRE, MARTINU may be integrated here.

A1. MUSICAL MODERNISM comprises expressionist stylistic and avant-garde technicist trends.

A1.1. MUSICAL EXPRESSIONISM - comprises (1.1.) the cultivated music, predominantly secular, using the European national languages, (1.2.) of the period 1900>contemporary period, (1.3.) of an individualistic and alienated ideological attitude, (1.4.) being written by authors, (2.1.) with specific sonorous languages, sometime speculative, (2.2.) speculative rhythmic, according to the techniques employed; (2.3.) predominantly figural-motivic morphologies, sometimes thematic, evolutive syntaxes, (2.4.) diverse features, (2.5.) diversified timbres, (2.6.) professional performances, (2.7.) based on written documents.

The expressionism propagates intense emotional contents, even pathological, with states of fear, anxiety, depression, hallucinations, and nightmares. The painting The Scream (1893) by the Norvegian artist Edvard Munch is considered the Expressionist emblem.

A1.2. AVANT-GARDISM comprises ultra-modernist stylistic trends, proclaiming the rejection of the consecrated forms and asking for a renewal, ostentatiously and polemically.

A1.2.1.BRUITISM and CONCRETE MUSIC comprise (1.1.) the cultivated compositions using predominantly classic sources and noises electronically processed, sometimes onomatopoeical or fictional texts, (1.2.) manifested from the first half of the 20th century until nowadays, (1.3.) having a humanist or an ideologically indifferent attitude, (1.4.) being written by authors, sometime collectively, (2.1.) variated or aleatoric language, (2.2.) mainly free rhythm, (2.3.) mainly free morphologies, evolutive and new syntaxes, (2.4.) multiple structures, predominantly with electronic montages, (2.5.) mainly instrumental/ non-conventional/ electronic/ mixed timbres, (2.6.) predominantly professional performances, (2.7.) based on written or electronic documents.

A1.2.2. ALEATORISM - comprises (1.1.) the cultivated compositions, in any language, (1.2.) starting in the middle of the 20th century, (1.3.) lacking a specific ideological attitude, (1.4.) written by authors, with a particularized collective participation, (2.1.) with free sonorous languages, (2.2.) free rhythm, (2.3.) free morphologies and syntaxes, (2.4.) free structures, (2.5.) mainly innovative timbral typologies, (2.6.) predominantly professional performances, (2.7.) based on partially determined written documents.

In 20th century music, the term was employed by Pierre BOULEZ, in the 1950s.

A.1.2.3. ELECTRO-ACCOUSTIC MUSIC – initiated in the middle of the 20th century.

A2. Stylistic-musical trends which combine creatively modernism with traditional elements:

A.2.1. MUSICAL NEO-CLASSICISM.

- generated as anti-romantic attitude, manifested in music in the 1870s; after 1910 it diversified into neo-Baroque, neo-Renaissance, neo-primitive, neo-medieval, neo-Romantic, neo-Impressionist (MESSIAEN), even neo-modern

- stages:

~1870~1900, first writings, in the compositions of Romantic authors

~1900~1920, neo-classic compositions proper

~1910~1945, diversification, with neo-Baroque, neo-Renaissance, neo-primitice aspects (eg. STRAVINSKY, Sacre du primptemps, 1913);

~1945~1970, stylistically diversifiec ompositions, with neo-medieval, neo-Romantic aspects.

- Neue Sachlichkeit – a trend against Expressionism, manifested in Germany,~1920>~1933; in music presents sometimes neo-Baroque language and procedures, other times having ambiental functions, present in some works by HINDEMITH.

A.2.2. NATIONAL MUSICAL SCHOOLS IN THE 20'TH 'CENTURY comprise (1.1.) the cultivated, secular or religious compositions, using the national languages, (1.2.) 1900> contemporary period, (1.3.) of humanist and national ideological attitude, (1.4.) written by authors, (2.1.) specific modal languages, (2.2.) metrically-divisionary rhythm, sometimes with heterogeneous or free combinations, (2.3.) traditional morphologies and syntaxes, (2.4.) diverse structures, (2.5.) timbral typologies of Romantic type, enriched, (2.6.) predominantly professional performances, (2.7.) based on written documents.

A3. RETRO TRENDS IN THE 20'TH 'CENTURY include the CLASSICIZANT and the POSTROMANTIC one, having predominantly convergent aspects, comprising (1.1.) the cultivated secular and religious compositions, using the national languages and sometimes the classic languages, (1.2.) after 1900 until nowadays, (1.3.) having a humanist-conservative ideological attitude, (1.4.) written by authors, (2.1.) simple or relatively complex tonal or modal languages, (2.2.) metrically-divisionary rhythm, (2.3.) traditional morphologies and syntaxes, (2.4.) simple homophonous or polyphonic structures, (2.5.) traditional timbral typologies, (2.6.) professional or amateur performances, (2.7.) based on written documents.

A4. POSTMODERNISM or POSTMODERN POLYSTYLISM.

- the national stylistic trends in the 20th century may have neo-classic, post-romantic, classic or modernist connotations.

- those national music school which do not have references to a cultivated musical classicism, confer on traditional national music functions analogous to classical music.

- the retro trends were cultivated by the propaganda music of totalitarian regimes, with mobilizing functions and favouring accessibility.

- the retro trends are preferred in religious music, especially in neo-Protestant churches, as an expression of community accessibility.

- the retro trends frequently favour the aesthetic kitsch.

A/B. JAZZ – grows in importance in musical life. It influences the compositions of some authors either by being integrated in their personal style, as with GERSHWIN, or occasionally: eg. STRAVINSKY, MILHAUD, BARTÓK („Contrasts", 1938).

B. POPULAR MUSIC – comprises a multitude of trends and movements. The preferred literary contents are love, even accentuated eroticism, contemporary political-social themes (war in Vietnam, poverty, revolt), and loneliness.

LATINO MUSIC – is the popular music of the 20th century, originating in Central and South America, spread in the North-American space, afterwards European and worldwide, having its specificity manifested in the language and rhythm employed.

COUNTRY or COUNTRY AND WESTERN – is the north-American music trend, flourishing in the 1920s, characterized by poetic contents specific to socio-geographical areas of the US and have its own traits of musical language.

POP MUSIC – a music with a high degree of addressability, with simple contents, mainly with text, starting from the middle of the 20th century, with democratic, sometimes sub-cultural ideology, having simple traits of musical language, makes use also of electronic timbres.

ROCK MUSIC – also a music with high addressability, with every-day contents, predominantly with text, starting in the middle of the 20th century, worldwide known, with democratic, even subcultural ideology, having specific traits of musical language, especially rhythmical importance, employing also electronic timbres.

Stylistic features

1. Features related to content

- rejection of traditions,

- rejection of harmony and coherence,

- a certain pragmatism and technicism,

- sometimes, mercantile relations with the consumerist attitude or on the contrary, its defying,

- internal contradictions.

- secularization of music, a consequence of the social one and of the spreading of atheism, is intensified.

- religious musical writing is not abandoned – MESSIAEN, PENDERECKI, TODUŢĂ.

- quotation, paraphrase, parody render particular through musical references contents of neoclassic compositions, from the modern national schools, but also of modernist pieces.

- for the children’s’ themes, the main domains of writing are: instrumental and choral works performed by children, as well as the operas dedicated to children:

1908>27, Charles KOECHLIN, La Course de printemps, 4 symphonic poems and 3 orchestral lieds

1926>39, BARTÓK, Microcosmos, pieces for piano

1930, HINDEMITH, Let’s Build a Town, opera with and for children

1932, HABA, Children’s Play, children’s voices, choir and solo

1935, PROKOFIEF, Music for Children, 12 pieces for piano,

1943, BERNSTEIN, I Hate Music, 5 children’s songs, for soprano and piano

1945, SHOSTACOVITCH, Children’s Notebook, 6 pieces for piano

1946, BRITTEN,The Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra.Variations on a theme by Purcell

1948, CAGE, Suite for Toy Piano

1949, BRITTEN, The Little Sweep. Let’s Make an Opera!, opera with and for children

1950, PROKOFIEF, Winter Bonfire, suite for children’s voices and orchestra

1956-7, PÄRT, Music for a Children’s Theatre, Four Dances: Puss in Boots, Red-Riding-Hood and Wolf, Butterfly, Dance of the Ducklings, piano

- dissociation of the emotional contents from the rational ones, the latter being associated with speculative means (eg. serial works).

- the traumas of the two World Wars are reflected in music – e.g. symphonic pieces by SHOSTAKOVITCH, PENDERECKI, oratorios by SCHOENBERG, TIPPETT, the personal style of XENAKIS.

- totalitarian systems (Nazism and Communism) requested and spread specific contents, ideologically indebted.

2. Features related to composition, language and performance

2.0. Composing principles action together more or less balanced.

2.1. Sonorous language

Presents multiple determined or undetermined techniques and arrangements; frequently, they are mixed. In the fisrt group is situated atonalism, dodecaphony, dodecaphonic serialism, techniques which derive one from the other.

Polytonalism – successively but especially simultaneously – is characteristic to neoclassic music, having also as a result the dissolution of tonality.

Another category of sonorous languages are the modal ones. The modes of 20th century music can be classified as modes of natural provenance or speculative.

Modes of natural provenance:

- popular modes, Est-European, extra-European, cultivated by the composes of modern national schools;

- acoustic modes, which derive from the chains of harmonic sounds; they are found in traditional music, but are also subject to speculative arrangements (BARTOK, STROE, NICULESCU, VIERU cultivate sonorities inspired from folk instruments).

Speculative modes:

- modes with limited transposition, initiated by Olivier MESSIAEN, consisting of sonorous repetitive arrangements of structures of tones and semitones;

- modes based on mathematical formulas.

Languages of mixed origins:

- Microtones (ENESCU), derived from Romanian traditional music, or of speculative origin, respectively (HABA).

Other sonorous languages, of natural provenance

- the language of birds was studied and recreated by MESSIAEN –Catalogue d’oiseaux, 7 books for piano, 1958.

Other sonorous languages, of speculative origin

Synaesthesia – the associative capacity of certain stimuli (in the case of music, of the sonorous languages) with the visualization of certain colours, involuntarily and inconsistently, by activating some parts of the brain (e.g. SCRIABIN, in Prometheus. The Poem of Fire (1910).

2.2. Rhythmics

The rhythmics presents all the intermediary degrees between undetermined and hyper-organised, extremes which converge in the similarity of the quasi-rubato effect. Rhythmics is cultivated especially in neo-classic pieces, and in the national ones enter categories of the heterogeneous metrical rhythm. Some particular rhythmic categories:

- the rhythmical serial technique within the integral serialism (MESSIAEN, Quatre études de rythme, piano (1949-50): Mode de valeurs et d’intensités; BOULEZ, Structures I (1951-2).

- polyrhythms and polymetries, successive or simultaneous, characteristic to neo-classic and national trends.

- MESSIAEN continued the diversification of the procedures of rhythmic arrangement (eg. Chromatic rhythms).

- traditional oriental rhythms are found in MESSIAEN’s works, while GLASS employs classic Indian rhythms.

- aksak rhythm.

2.3. Morphologies and syntaxes

The most frequent morphologies are figural-motivic, crumbled. New morphologies are tied to new syntaxes, "sonorous linen" – aleatoric, stochastic.

The themes have mainly three aspects:

- continuing, in relation with the neo-classicism,

- new, tied to the thematic value of the series,

- reiterating, in polystylistic music.

Mathematical syntaxes: stochastic music is calculated according to the theory of probability (XENAKIS).

Free form is proper to mobile, polyvalent music, in which the order of articulations and/or the length is not marked – repetitive music, music for film, pop music.

2.4. Structures

- Polyphony – traditional or renewed procedures: counterpoint, free heterogeneous polyphony, multiple counterpoint, imitation; new procedures: polyphony in reiterations, punctualist polyphony, texture, aleatory polyphony.

Aleatoric and stochastic music are generated using techniques which can offer the same appearance to the structures of dense sonorous linen, being nonetheless free and calculated.

- Harmonic languages: mixtures, symmetrical harmonies, vertical polytonalism, alpha chords.

- in the 20th century and nowadays, heterophony is cultivated mainly with the national trends composers (ENESCU).

2.5. Timbres

2.5.1. Timbral typologies L- all types of instruments and ensembles, traditional and new, including electronic. Klangfarbenmelodie is employed. The percussion instruments have a special place (VARÈSE, Ionisation (1929-31), Bartók, Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937), XENAKIS, Persephassa, (1969).

2.5.2. Vocal culture

Performing music in any of the styles discussed is one of the main difficulties of the technique and vocal education in the 20th century. Modern medical researches – with optic fibres or electroglottography- visualize the physiology of singing.

A. in cultivated music, the intonational and timbral sphere of the human voice is enlarged, dominated by a taste for experimenting:

- spoken declamation;

- Sprechgesang (SCHOENBERG, Pierrot lunaire, 1912);

- microintervals (eg. ENESCU, Oedipe);

- declamation, reciting, shouting, whispering, exclamation, bocca chiusa, glissandi, onomatopoeia;

- integration of improvisational-aleatoric procedures,

- combining vocal effects with instrumental ones and electronic modulation.

- singing treatises (Raoul HUSSON, Le Chant, Paris, 1960).

A/B. In jazz, vocal improvisation asks for superior virtuosity levels and enriched timbral procedures. In the scat singing practice the singer reaches performances similar in difficulty with the instrumentalists.

B. In pop music: there are characteristic, generally, the deep, chest registers. The microphones solicit less the voices and the vocal technique is of secondary importance. The text is valorized rhetorically through singing, the performing models in this sense being Frank SINATRA (1915-1998), for intimate poetical contents, and Elvis PRESLEY (1935-1977), for mobilizing, rebellious contents. Among the vocal effects:

- falsetto enlarges the high register;

- hoarse voice is typical for some rock subgenres;

- effects of vocal percussion (beat boxing);

Diphonia (given to the superior harmonic sounds, produced by the partial vibrations of the segments of vocal chords) is a technique derived from traditional types of music (the shepherds in Sardinia, Mongolia, Tibetan monks etc) which drew the attention of specialists even since the middle of the 20th century and afterwards entered the cultivated music (eg. STOCKHAUSEN, Stimmung, 1968, for 6 solo voices and microphones).

2.5.3. Specific musical instruments

Idiphonic instruments: marimbaphone; vibraphone.

The piano is, with some authors, timbrally modified by introducing objects on/between the strings; by non-conventional ways of articulation, on the keyboard or the strings; touching he keys with different objects; vocal effects on the resonance of the piano; acoustic effects.

Modern mechanic piano.

Electrical instruments – guitar, bass guitar, violin, cello, flute – used in cultivated avant-garde and popular music (eg. CRUMB, Vox balenae,1971).

2.6. Performing

2.6. 1. General aspects

The performance perpetuated sometimes Romantic ways of rendering music, with sentimental overflows, vibrato in the strings, exacerbation of intuition.

2.6.2. Improvisation aspects

The silent film has the most intense presence of musical improvisation with synthesis functionality.

In modern and contemporary music, according to the compositions, the performances are placed from a strict determinism to aleatorism. Improvisation is abundant in prepared, aleatoric, electronic music.

In JAZZ appears the defining manifestation of improvisation, relevant being aspects of rhythmical formulas and modal variations.

Musical genres

There are preserved the musical genres and, on the other part, are enlarged the improvisational genres, in aleatoric music.

The song and the lied are timbrally diversified by the extension to other sources of accompanying the voice, orchestral or chamber:

1923, HINDEMITH, Marienleben, Rilke

1933, RAVEL, Don Quichotte a Dulcinee, (baritone)

1937, JORA, Cântece pentru voce şi pian, Goga, Bacovia, Arghezi

1939, BRITTEN, 7 sonets for tenor, Michelangelo

1945, MESSIAEN, Harawi (soprano)

1954, BRITTEN, Winter Words,(tenor), Thomas Hardy

1979>80, TODUŢĂ, 14 lieduri pe versuri de Blaga

~1970>, JARDA, lieduri pe versuri de Blaga, Goga, D.Stanca

The opera genre presents alterations and subgenres, determined by their destination and dramatic and musical ways, such as: chamber opera, opera for children, musical, opera film, rock opera.

The ballet genre develops the tradition of Tchaikovsky, especially with the Second Russian School, including the subgenre ballet chanté.

The film, as an art of synthesis, gives music important functions.

Special references

1. Reference editions

  • BERG, Alban: Sämtliche Werke, Wien,1984-
  • ELGAR, Edward: Elgar Complete Edition, London, 1981-
  • HINDEMITH, Paul, Sämtliche Werke, Schott, Mainz, 1975-
  • JANÁČEK, Leoš: Complete Critical Edition, Praha, 1978-

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  • MUREŞAN, Adina Maria, Pianul în orchestra simfonică din secolul XX, Cluj-Napoca, 2009
  • NEDELCUŢ,Nelida, Semiografia pianistică în creaţia românească a secolului XX,Cluj-N.,2003
  • NICHOLS, David, ed., TCC to John Cage, 2002 ○
  • NIEDERMAIER, Astrid, Educaţie muzicală modernă. Concepţia pedagogică şi instrumentariul Orff, Sibiu, Ed.Hora, 1999
  • OLTEAN, Tatiana, Perspective analitice în opera Oratoriu « Meşterul Manole » de Sigismund Toduţă, teză de doctorat, AMGD, Cluj-Napoca, 2008
  • ORBAN, Agneta, Estetica missei în relaţia dintre gen şi formă în literatura muzicală a secolului XX, teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, 2005
  • OŞANU-POP,Ninuca,Elemente specifice ale scriiturii pianistice enesciene,Cluj-Napoca,2003
  • PERNYE, Andras, Alban Berg, Budapest, Ed. Gondolat, 1967
  • POP, Adrian, Recviemul românesc, Cluj-Napoca, 2004
  • POPESCU, Mihai, Repertoriul general al creaţiei muzicale româneşti, I. Muzica simfonică, vocal-simfonică, de operă, operetă, balet, de fanfară; II. Muzica de cameră; Supliment, Bucureşti, 1979, 1981, 1987
  • POPLE, Anthony, ed., TCC to Berg, 1997 ○
  • PROKOFIEV, Serghei, Autobiografie, însemnări, Bucureşti, 1960
  • RESPIGHI, Elsa, Ottorino Respighi, Bucureşti, 1982
  • SALZMAN, Eric: Twentieth-century Music: an Introduction, Prentice Hall, 1974; trad.magh. A XX. század zenéje, Budapest, 1980
  • SANDU-DEDIU, Valentina, Muzica românească între 1944-2000, Bucureşti, 2002
  • SANDU-DEDIU, Valentina, Wozzeck – Profeţie şi împlinire, Bucureşti, 1991
  • SASSMANN, Albert, Tehnica şi estetica muzicii de pian pentru mâna stângă solo, teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, 2006
  • SÂRBU, Cristina Maria: Carl Orff. Viaţa şi opera. Bucureşti, Ed. Anima, 2005
  • SCHÖNBERG, Arnold, Fundamentele compoziţiei muzicale, Ed. Institutului Naţional pentru Societatea şi Cultura României, 1998
  • SEDA, Jaroslav, Leos JANÁČEK, Bucureşti, 1961
  • SIMEONE, Nigel; TYRRELl, John; NĚMCOVÁ, Alena, Janáček’s Works. A Catalogue of the Music and Writings of Leoš Janáček, Oxford: Clarendon, 1997 ○
  • SOMFAI,László, Béla Bartók.Composition, Concepts and Autograph Sources, Berkeley,1996
  • STAN,Constantin-Tufan, György Kurtág, reîntoarcerea la matricea spirituală, Cluj-N., 2009
  • STRAVINSKI, Igor, Chroniques de ma vie, Paris, 1962
  • STRAVINSKI, Igor, Poetica muzicală, Bucureşti, 1967
  • STUCKENSCHMIDT,Hans Heinz:Neue Musik,Berlin,1951; trad.Musique nouvelle, Paris, f.a.
  • STUCKENSCHMIDT, Hans Heinz, Oper in dieser Zeit. Europäische Opernerreignisse aus vier Jahrzente, Velber bei Hannover, 1964
  • SUBOTNIK, Rose Rosengard: Developing Variations: Style and Ideology in Western Music. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991
  • SZABO, Csaba, Hogyan tanitsuk korunk zenéjét, Bucureşti, Kriterion, 1977
  • TERÉNYI, Eduard, Armonia muzicii moderne, 1900-1950. MediaMusica, Cluj-Napoca, 2001
  • TIMARU, Valentin, Simfonismul enescian, Bucureşti, 1992
  • TOMA-ZOICAS, Ligia, Universul gândirii xenakiene – oglindă a unui secol cucerit de ştiinţă, Bucureşti, 2002
  • ȚĂRANU, Cornel, Enescu în conştiinţa prezentului. Bucureşti, 1969
  • ŢĂRANU, Cornel, Elemente de stilistică muzicală (secolul XX), Cluj-Napoca, 1981
  • VARGA, Bálint András,ed. Contemporary Hungarian Composers, Budapest, 1989
  • VARGA, Ovidiu : Enescu şi alţi şase mari ai secolului XX, Bucureşti, 1981
  • VARGA, Ovidiu: Cei trei vienezi şi nostalgia lui Orfeu, Bucureşti, 1983
  • VARNAI Peter [ed.] Miért szép századunk operája? Budapest, Gondolat, 1979
  • VLAD, Roman, Istoria dodecafoniei, Bucureşti, 1998
  • VLAD, Roman, Stravinski, Bucureşti, 1967
  • VOGEL, Jaroslav, Leos Janaček. His Life and Works, London, f.a.
  • VOGT, Hans, Neue Musik seit 1945, ed.a treia, Philipp Reclam Jun.Stuttgart, 1982
  • VOICANA, Mircea, coord., George Enescu. Monografie, Ed. Academiei, Bucureşti, 1971
  • VOICULESCU, Dan, Aspecte ale polifoniei secolului XX, teză de doctorat,Cluj-Napoca, 1983
  • WALSH, Stephen, The Music of Stravinsky, Oxford, 1992
  • WEBERN, Anton, Calea spre muzica nouă, Bucureşti, 1998
  • WHITE, Eric Walter, Stravinsky. A zeneszerző és művei, Budapest, 1976; Stravinsky. Le compositeur et son oeuvre, Flammarion, 1983; orig.engl. ○
  • XENAKIS,Iannis,Formalized Music.Throught Matematics in Composition,Bloomington,1971
  • XENAKIS, Iannis, Muzica şi arhitectura, Bucureşti, 1997

A/B. JAZZ

  • Beiträge zur Jazzforschung, Wolke Verlag, Hofheim, 1989–
  • The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, ed. arry KERNFELD, MacmillanPressLtd., London, New York, 1994
  • ANDRIEŞ, Adrian, Dicţionar de jazz (muzicieni străini), Bucureşti, Ed.Tehnică, 1998
  • ARMSTRONG, Louis Satchmo, Viaţa mea la New Orleans, Bucureşti, 1966
  • BERINDEI, Mihai, Dicţionar de jazz, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1976
  • BOTA, Johnny, Glosar al termenilor de jazz, Ed. Brumar, Timişoara, 2008
  • BOTA, Johnny, Vioara în jazzul modern, Timişoara, Ed. Brumar, 2008
  • COOKE, Mervyn; David HORN, TCC to Jazz ○
  • GONDA, János, Jazz. Történet – elmélet – gyakorlat, Budapest, 1979
  • HODEIR, Andre, Jazzul. Oameni şi probleme, Bucureşti, 1967
  • MOORE, Allan F., ed., TCC to Blues and Gospel music, 2002 ○
  • SANDNER,Wolfgang(Hg.):Jazz.In:Handbuch der Musik im 20.Jahhrundert,Band9,Laaber,2005
  • SCHAFER, W.J., RIEDEL, J., The Art of Ragtime. Form and Meaning of an Original American Art, Louisiana, 1973
  • SHAW, Arnold, The Jazz Age. Popular Music in the 1920s, Oxford University Press, 1989
  • VIEHMANN, Iosif; ZDRENGHEA, Mihaela C., Curs de Istoria jazzului, Cluj-Napoca, MediaMusica, 2000

B. POP MUSIC AND MOVIE MUSIC

  • BRAMWELL, Tony; Rosemary KINGSLAND, Viaţa mea cu Beatles. Magical Mystery Tours, Editura All, Bucureşti, 2007
  • CARAMAN-FOTEA, Daniela, Conexiuni rock. De la Bill Haley la „Beatles" şi "Rolling Stones", Bucureşti, 1982
  • CARAMAN-FOTEA, Daniela, Meridianele cântecului, Bucureşti, 1989
  • EVERETT, William A.; Paul R.LAIRD, eds., TCC to the Musical, 2008 ○
  • FAZAKAS, Aaron, Imagine şi sunet în muzica de film, teză de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, 2010
  • FRITH, Simon; Will STRAW; John STREET, eds., TCC to Pop and Rock, 2001 ○
  • JACKSON, Michael, Moon-Walk, Editura Venus, Iaşi, 1992
  • KENEDI, János, [ed.] Film + zene = filmzene?, Zeneműkiadó, Budapest, 1978.
  • LÉVAI, Júlia – VITÁNYI Iván, Miből lesz a sláger?, Budapest, 1973
  • PRESLEY-BEAULIEU, Trutia Priscilla, Eu şi Elvis, Editura Elis, Bucureşti, 1993
  • SBÂRCEA, George, O stradă cu cântec sau povestea musicalului, Bucureşti, 1979

10.3. Audio/video recordings

  • Edgar Varèse, documentar, Les Films d’ici, 1995
  • George Enescu – Oedipe – Andrei Şerban. Film, Editura Video, Bucureşti, 1995
  • Jazz Piano History, Hommage Multimedia GmbH, 5 dvd
  • Leoš Janáček, film documentar, WDR Arte, 2006, 56 minute
  • Maria Callas at Covent Garden, regia Franco Zefirelli, dvd EMI Claasics: VERDI, Don Carlo, BIZET, Carmen, PUCCINI, Tosca
  • MESSIAEN – La liturgie de cristal, dvd, film documentar, Naxos, 2007
  • The Art of Conducting - Great Conductors of the Past, dvd, 1994
  • The Art of Piano - Great Pianists of 20th Century, dvd, NVC Arts, 1999
  • The Art of Violin, dvd, NVC Arts, 2001 – inclusiv Enescu
  • The War Symphonies: Shostakovich Against Stalin. Rhombus Media/Bullfrog Films, 1997. Director, Larry Weinstein; dirijor Valeri Gherghiev, film documentar 82 min.
  • BARTÓK, Complete Edition, Hungaroton
  • BERG, Alban, Lulu, dir.Pierre Boulez, regia Patrice Chéreau, 1979
  • BERG, Alban, Wozzeck, dir. Daniel Barenboim, regia Patrice Chéreau, 1994
  • ENESCU, George, Oedipe, film, regia artistică Olimpia Arghir, dirijor Ion Baciu, Filarmonica din Iaşi; în rolul titular, David Ohanesian, TVR, 1981
  • ENESCU, George, Integrala lucrărilor simfonice, Filarmonica Bucureşti, dirijor Cristian Mandeal, Arte Nova Classics
  • ENESCU, George, Integrala lucrărilor simfonice, Orchestra Naţională Radio, dirijor Horia Andreescu, Olympia
  • ENESCU, George, Integrala lucrărilor pentru pian, Aurora Ienei, Electrecord, 1981
  • ENESCU şi LIPATTI interpretează ENESCU şi LIPATTI, Electrecord
  • GAÁL,István, Bartók Béla.Az éjszaka zenéje (1970); Bartók Béla(1881-1945),documentare tv

ORFF, Carl, Carmina Burana atque imaginibus magicis. Regia J.P.Ponnelle, solişti Lucia Popp, Hermann Prey, dir.Kurt *Eichhorn, Bavaria Film- und Fernsehgesellschaft, 1975

  • SCHÖNBERG, Arnold, Complete Chamber Works, Decca
  • STRAVINSKI, Igor, Petruşka. Orchestra Operei din Paris, dirijor Michel Tabachnik, Paris Opera Ballet Company, coregrafia Patrice Bart – Eugene Polyaki
  • XIROU, Efi, Charisma X – Iannis Xenakis, film documentar produs de E.R.T.S.A. (Centrul Grec de Filme) şi Vox Documentaries, 2008

10.4. Web sites

  • www.allmusic.com *
  • www.aurel-stroe.de/
  • www.beatlestube.net *
  • www.enescusociety.org/
  • www.exilarte.at/ <engl
  • www.festivalenescu.ro
  • www.fondation-igor-stravinsky.org/web/
  • www.iannis-xenakis.org/
  • www.leonardbernstein.com
  • www.lipatti-haskil-foundation.com/
  • www.luiginono.it
  • www.musiquecontemporaine.fr/en/ *
  • www.oliviermessiaen.net
  • www.oliviermessiaen.org
  • www.orelfoundation.org/
  • www.origo.hu/bartok/20060330bartoksorozat.html
  • www.pianola.org
  • www.prokofiev.org
  • www.rachmaninoff.org
  • www.redhotjazz.com
  • www.rism.ub.uni-frankfurt.de
  • www.schoenberg.at
  • www.sigismundtoduta.org
  • www.stockhausen.org
  • www.tiberiuolah.ro
  • www.zti.hu/bartok
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